Alexandria: Brief History

The history of Alexandria is one of the most intriguing episodes in the history of civilizations. Founded by Alexander the Great on the western edge of the Nile Delta at the dawn of the era, the city was to become a royal and capital city of an integrated empire of Greek, Mediterranean, and Egyptian cultures. The development of Alexandria went through several historical stages, from a Macedonian royal city to medieval Arab capital. This paper aims to present the history of Alexandria from its foundation to its conquest by the Arabs.

1. The Beginning and the Macedonian Era

The history of Alexandria is closely related to the life and fortune of Alexander the Great and his empire. In the late autumn of 332 BC, having entered Egypt without resistance and been proclaimed pharaoh in Memphis, Alexander headed north to explore the western Mediterranean coast. He was impressed by the natural harbor between the lake and the island of Pharos and decided to found a city, which would be named Alexandria.

Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BC, and his empire was divided between his generals. The general Ptolemy, one of Alexander’s closest friends and a brilliant commander, received Egypt as his share. He ruled Egypt as an independent king and his capital was Alexandria. The city was built with enormous effort during the Ptolemaic dynasty and became a great center of Hellenistic culture.

An immense amount of money was spent on constructing a city of marble buildings, avenues, and public places. It has been assumed that the Mouseion and Library, attracting the greatest Greek and Egyptian thinkers, were also founded. The famous scholars, including Euclid, Eratosthenes, Archimedes, and Callimachus, lived in Alexandria. Moreover, the Pharos lighthouse, one of the wonders of the ancient world, was built on the island of Pharos.

The era of the Ptolemies was a period of prosperity and cultural flourishing. The wealth of the city was augmented, and luxury became commonplace. The Ptolemaic rulers maintained a program of public works and building throughout the city. However, the dynasty began to weaken under the pressure of foreign policy and internal feuds. Eventually, in 31 BCE, in the battle of Actium, the last Egyptian queen, Cleopatra VII, was defeated by Octavian, who later ruled Egypt as Emperor Augustus, and Alexandria became his personal city.

While being under the Roman administration, Alexandria remained an important cultural and commercial center. However, as the capital of Egypt, it was not of great interest to the Roman rulers, who were more inclined to neglect the city. Nevertheless, it was a hub of classical learning and science. When the Roman Empire established its rule over Alexandria, it had the status of a provincial city ruled by an equestrian prefect. In fact, the city became the second most powerful city in the Roman Empire after Rome.

The strategic location of Alexandria was why the city became the heart of the Roman grain trade. The millions of bushels of grain produced in the fertile Nile Valley were shipped to the capital of the Empire by sea. During the Roman rule, many Alexandrians were Greek-speaking Jews, and the latter were the opponents of the Roman administration. Therefore, Roman governors often struggled to restore order and curb Jewish revolts.

2. The End of the Classical World

In the first three centuries of the common era, Alexandria became a center of Christianity. According to tradition, St. Mark was the first bishop of Alexandria, and he brought his Christian followers to the city in the middle of the first century. The city was one of the most prominent Christian centers in the Roman Empire. For several centuries, Christian teachings, especially their Alexandrian branch, have developed and flourished. Thus, notable Christian philosophers and theologians, including Origen, Clement, and Athanasius of Alexandria, emerged in Alexandria. However, there were also periods of persecution, social unrest, and iconoclasm that considerably damaged the cultural heritage of the city.

In the late third century, the Roman emperor Constantine I patronized Christianity and officially established it as the dominant religion in the Roman Empire. A wave of anti-pagan persecution swept across Alexandria. The temples and academies familiar to the citizens of the city were closed, and the pagan cultural tradition was forgotten. In the fourth and fifth centuries, Alexandria, as the center of Hellenistic culture, was Christianized under the rule of the Byzantine Empire. However, in the sixth century, political, economic, and theological struggles took their toll on the city.

3. The Arabs Conquer Egypt

At the beginning of the seventh century, the newly emerged Arab Islamic Empire conquered Egypt. In 639 AD, the Arab general Amr ibn al-As led an army of 4000 soldiers from Mecca and besieged the city. The siege lasted a month, and in 641 AD, the general ibn al-As and the ruler of Alexandria signed a treaty, according to which the city was to surrender to the new Arab rulers. The Arab conquest of Egypt marked the end of the ancient history of Alexandria.

Thus, the Arab conquest significantly weakened the city. As the new rulers established their capital in Upper Egypt, near modern Cairo, the political, commercial, and cultural significance of Alexandria declined. Nonetheless, it remained a crucial seaport for the new rulers and one of the economic centers of the Islamic world. The ancient cultural traditions of Alexandria were gradually abandoned as the new rulers imposed their own Islamic traditions and practices. In conclusion, the history of Alexandria is the history of great cultural and scientific achievements of humankind.