Manetho and the Dynasties of Ancient Egypt

In the early third century BCE, under the rule of the first two Macedonian kings of the Ptolemaic dynasty, Ptolemy I Soter and Ptolemy II Philadelphus, a local Egyptian priest named Manetho performed an incredible feat. This native of the city of Sebennytos (Tebnetjer) and temple of Heliopolis was not only well-versed in the sacred hieroglyphic, hieratic, and demotic scripts but also fluent in the Greek tongue, the language of the new rulers.

His task was to compose a history of the entire thirty-one-thousand-year-old Pharaonic tradition for the benefit of the Macedonian elite. Manetho’s Aegyptiaca (History of Egypt) was a monumental composition that chronicled the development of dynastic history from the dawn of time to the Ptolemaic era.

The work, which has not survived to this day, was divided into three-volume sections, each of which chronicled the history of Egypt from the period of the First to the Thirtieth dynasty. Modern historians divide Egypt’s history into several development epochs, arranging the names of the Pharaohs into groups and classifying them using terms such as Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms, as well as the Intermediate and Late periods. All of this allowed Manetho to create a historical base for future research on the study of the achievements and history of the ancient world.

1. The Legacy of Manetho: History of Ancient Egypt’s Ancient Chronology

In order to better understand the value and importance of the work of the priest from Sebennytos, it is necessary to examine the socio-political and cultural history of Egypt at the time when this work was being created. It is known that Alexander the Great conquered Egypt in 332 BC. On his behalf, the first Macedonian ruler, Ptolemy I Soter, and his son and successor Ptolemy II Philadelphus, began their reign. In order to consolidate the power in the conquered territory, the new rulers began to seek ways to combine the traditional cultural-historical layers of the native population with the recently introduced Hellenistic culture.

Manetho was one of the few priests who had direct access to the ancient temple archives. His vast knowledge and skills made him a trusted advisor to the Ptolemaic kings. The main achievement of the priest was the creation of a history of Egypt, which was intended to provide a comprehensive overview of this ancient civilization for the benefit of the Macedonian rulers. In addition to writing historical works, Manetho also participated in the establishment of the state cult of Serapis – the deity who was created by combining the gods of Egypt and Greece.

This project clearly shows the desire of the new rulers to create a kind of cultural synthesis. Perhaps, in part, due to the efforts of Manetho, the Ptolemies became an integral part of the cultural and political history of Egypt. Unlike foreign visitors to Egypt, such as the historian Herodotus, Manetho had unlimited access to the ancient temple archives.

Using the local primary sources, the priest was able to compile a list of all the Pharaohs who ruled Egypt. In addition to the historical writings on papyrus, Manetho used royal decrees and temple texts, including the famous Abydos King List, the Karnak King List, and the Saqqara Tablet, which were stored in the temple archives.

Manetho examined the chronicles, including the Turin royal canon, part of which has been preserved to this day. This document contains information about all the kings of Egypt, including the duration of their thirty-one-thousand-year-old reigns. Finally, the priest went through the annals of the temple, which contained information about the Sed festivals, revenues, military campaigns, and sacred edicts of the Pharaohs. A large body of source material enabled Manetho to create a complete historical and chronological picture of the development of Egyptian society.

2. The Contents of Manetho’s History of Egypt

Manetho’s History of Egypt was originally written in three large volumes. Each of the volumes of History was devoted to a certain historical period of Ancient Egypt. The first volume of Manetho’s history extends from the dawn of time to the end of the Old Kingdom.

Manetho’s account begins with the description of the time when Egypt was ruled by gods and demi-gods, such as Ra, Osiris, Horus, and Thoth. These mythical Pharaohs were followed by the hemicircled spirits (the followers of Horus). Then, Manetho describes the development of the dynastic history of Egypt, which began with the First Dynasty. Narmer or Aha was the first king of the First Dynasty and is believed to have been the first to unify all of Ancient Egypt.

Manetho gives a detailed description of the Fourth Dynasty – the time when Ancient Egypt saw the construction of the greatest pyramids – the Pharaohs’ mausoleums. He also describes the history of the Sixth Dynasty – the last of the Old Kingdom dynasties. The second volume of History extends from the Middle Kingdom to the end of the reign of the Hyksos kings. Manetho claims that the Fifteenth Dynasty ruled Egypt under the rule of the Heka-Khasut kings.

This group of invaders from Asia seized power in Egypt and ruled Egypt for about a century. Manetho vividly describes their violent conquest of Egypt: “There came unexpectedly a man of ignoble birth from the eastern regions, who had the boldness to invade the country, and easily subdued it by force without a battle.” The third volume of History was written about the New Kingdom and the period of Persian rule over Egypt. Manetho described in detail the time of the Ramesside pharaohs, who pursued a policy of expansion and conquest.

3. Manuscripts of Manetho’s History: The Journey Text Through Medieval Corruptions

Unfortunately, no original manuscripts of Manetho’s History have survived, and the only fragments of it are preserved in the writings of later historians. A Jewish-Roman historian Flavius Josephus in his treatise Against Apion in the first century AD cites Manetho’s History extensively. In particular, Josephus relates a passage from Manetho’s work describing the Hyksos period. Some medieval writers drew up critical epitomes of Manetho’s history for the benefit of readers. The most important of these was the Chronographia by Sextus Julius Africanus, written in the third century.

Later in the fourth century, Eusebius of Caesarea included excerpts from Manetho’s History in his Chronicle. Finally, in the eighth century, the Buddhist monk George Syncellus saved the fragments of the third-century bishop Africanus. Thus, to date, most of Manetho’s History has been preserved in Greek, with a few fragments in Coptic.

4. Historiographical Assessment: Manetho’s Influence on Modern Scholarship

Manetho’s vast work has had a tremendous impact on the study of ancient Egypt. His achievements were enormous, and his work became the cornerstone of Egyptology. His History provided the basis for the chronological study of Egypt for the next two millennia. The scholar created a complete classification of all the dynasties that ruled Ancient Egypt. Modern historians and archaeologists refer to this classification as the Manetho division of history into thirty-one dynasties. Each dynasty was divided into several sub-dynasties.

When examining the history of the Pharaohs, modern scholars often use the terms Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms, as well as Intermediate and Late periods, which were developed by Manetho. His work is essential to deciphering hieroglyphics, as well as studying the material culture and history of ancient Egypt. In the minds of nineteenth-century Egyptologists, such as Champollion and Mariette, Manetho embodied the ancient world.

However, it should be noted that when comparing Manetho’s narratives with actual sources, critical nuances must be taken into account. Copyists made many errors when copying History from one manuscript to another. Many of Manetho’s names in Greek were misrendered, so some dynasties were combined or split. In addition, the descriptions of the priest-historian sometimes contain fantastic elements mixed with historical narrative.

Manetho’s account of the Hyksos period, which reflects the true events of the Second Intermediate Period, is one of the most remarkable examples of his work. The historian portrayed the Asiatics as barbarians who came to Egypt of their own free will and overthrew the native kings. However, modern archaeology has demonstrated that the Hyksos invasion of Egypt was not so significant for the history of the country.

Nevertheless, these inaccuracies and misinterpretations do not detract from the overall value of Manetho’s work. This priest-scholar managed to create a complete chronological list of the dynasties, kings, and events of Ancient Egypt based on the temple archives. Subsequent archaeological findings confirmed the accuracy of this classification, as well as the reliability of the sources that Manetho used.

5. The Conclusion: Legacy and Cultural Contributions of Manetho

In conclusion, examining the life and work of Manetho provides insight into the cultural history of Egypt and the broader ancient Mediterranean region. Manetho was one of those rare priests who had access to all the temple archives and was well-versed in all the intricacies of the sacred hieroglyphic inscriptions. It is essential to note that this priest-historian was one of the first to take a broad look at the history of the ancient world.

Manetho managed to systematize thirty-one-thousand-year-old history using only the tools available to him. He created a standard for the modern historical study of the development of ancient Egypt, which is still used by scientists today. Manetho divided Egypt’s history into thirty-one dynasties, each of which was divided into sub-dynasties. More than two millennia after its creation, Manetho’s work continues to be used in all modern historical, philological, and archaeological scholarship.