Archaeological Excavations and the Discovery of Ancient Egyptian History

For centuries the knowledge of ancient Egypt was based on the prejudiced reports of Classical historians such as Herodotus, Biblical writers, and European legends about buried treasure. However in recent two centuries the discipline of scientific archaeology has helped to considerably advance our knowledge of ancient Egypt.

Excavation is a far more involved science than simply digging up golden artifacts and studying grand monuments – it is a multi-disciplinary endeavor involving stratigraphy, epigraphy, bioarchaeology, ceramic analysis, and new surveying methodologies. Through careful excavation the discipline has been able to document Egypt’s Pharaonic past in its entirety, shedding light on not just the great propaganda machines of the pharaohs but also the material culture and technologies of everyday ancient Egyptians.

1. From Treasure Digging to Scientific Methodology

The history of Egyptian archaeology is one of improving scientific standards, ranging from less destructive antiquity collecting to the careful excavation of ancient stratigraphy.

A. From Antiquarianism to the Establishment of the Egyptian Department

In the early nineteenth century, following the military expedition of Napoleon Bonaparte and the decipherment of hieroglyphs by Champollion in 1822, Egyptian archaeology entered a new phase of public popularity. Early excavators such as Belzoni and Mariette focused primarily on removing large statues and other objects of value to Europe’s museums. While Mariette would go on to found the Egyptian antiquities service and enforce better excavation practices around the country, early archaeology focused on removing whatever valuable artifacts they could carry away, regardless of site stratigraphy or ecological impact.

B. Flinders Petrie and the Founding of Scientific Archaeology

The turn of the nineteenth century saw the rise of Sir William Matthew Flinders Petrie as the leading Egyptologist of his time. Petrie realized that the study of small, common artifacts such as broken pottery could be more informative for dating a site than the study of gold or large monuments. He pioneered the following methodologies:

Sequence Dating / Seriation: The relative dating of small finds such as pottery sherds found in different Predynastic graves at Naqada and Diospolis Parva.

Detailed Stratigraphic Recording: The careful documentation of the three-dimensional placement of every artifact found within a stratum, as well as preservation of delicate botanical remains.

Through these methodologies Petrie transformed excavation from a treasure seeking hobby into a proper science. These stratigraphic analyses would later form the backbone of radiocarbon dating before its invention in the 1950s.

2. Major Discoveries of Archaeology in Egypt

Careful excavation has led to the discovery of entire periods of Egyptian history, filling in major gaps in our knowledge of the dynastic past.

A. Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt – Hierakonpolis and the Abydos Cemetery

Prior to the turn of the twentieth century, the origins of ancient Egypt were largely veiled in mystery. However the excavations of James Quibell and Frederick Green at Hierakonpolis (in particular at the so-called ‘Temple of Narmer’) have given us a better understanding on the processes which led to the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt around 3100 BC.

The later excavations of Günter Dreyer at Abydos, particularly at the famous Cemetery U, found small bone tags with proto-hieroglyphic inscriptions dating to circa 3200 BC, providing insight into how and when the Egyptian script first developed.

B. The Amarna Period – Tell el-Amarna

The excavations at Tell el-Amarna by Belzoni and later Flinders Petrie in the 1880s and 1890s uncovered an entirely unique find – the ruins of an Egyptian city built by the heretical pharaoh Akhenaten in the Middle Kingdom. The excavators found:

The Amarna Letters: A corpus of cuneiform diplomatic letters between the Egyptian court and the neighboring Babylonians, Assyrians, Mitannians, and Hittites. The tablets were found buried in the village by local inhabitants and later uncovered by archaeologists.

A city unlike any other – while the capitals of Memphis, Thebes, etc., were built on continuous foundations for thousands of years, Amarna is the only excavated Egyptian city showing a single, defined layout of streets, buildings, and suburbs. The excavators uncovered the palace and temple complexes of the king, residential buildings of the city’s elite, and even humble worker’s cottages, as well as furnaces which produced glass for the royal court.

C. Royal Tombs – The Valley of the Kings and KV62

The early 1920s discovery of the largely intact tomb of Tutankhamun by Howard Carter and Lord Carnarvon is certainly one of the most famous archaeological discoveries of all time. While the young pharaoh’s mask and the golden treasures of his tomb are more well known, it was the careful, decade long excavation of his burial which provided a detailed insight into the material culture of the New Kingdom. The excavators found thousands of organic artifacts, including chariots, flowers, wine, food, and even royal clothing buried with the deceased king, as well as wine jars with dated harvests and vineyard labels.

3. Modern Field Methods and Multi-Disciplinary Research

The work of modern archaeologists in Egypt goes far beyond excavation – researchers employ a variety of scientific disciplines in their work to avoid damaging delicate ancient finds.

A. Bioarchaeology, Osteology, and Forensic Medicine

The study of human remains and mummies found in workers’ cemeteries (such as the Giza Necropolis or Amarna) has allowed for a better understanding of ancient Egypt’s social history. With the help of traditional osteology and modern CAT scans the researchers can assess the impact of labor and diet on the common worker’s skeleton, comparing the evidence to the remains of ancient nobles interred in the Valley of the Kings or queens’ tombs.

The examination of royal mummies also helps to establish familial relationships between different dynasts, especially with regards to the controversial successions of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Dynasties.

B. Zooarchaeology and Archaeobotany

The study of animal bones, insect remains, and microscopic plant pollen found in trash pits or floor sweepings helps to recreate the environmental conditions of ancient Egypt, as well as the dietary preferences and domesticated animals of the locals.

C. Magnetometry, GPR, and Subsurface Surveying

Many excavation projects now utilize non-invasive methods such as magnetometry and ground penetrating radar to identify large structures (brick buildings, streets, tombs) buried beneath the desert sand before actual excavation begins.

D. Space Archaeology and Remote Sensing Discoveries

A recent innovation in archaeological research has been the utilization of satellite imaging and remote sensing to discover previously unknown settlements, tombs, and even ancient canals buried beneath the modern farmland. Space archaeologists such as Dr. Sarah Parcak have managed to identify hundreds of potential excavation sites for further on-site verification by traditional Egyptologists.

4. Settlement Archaeology and the Study of Common Folk

While the early archaeological endeavors were focused on grand temples and tombs located on Egypt’s dry desert periphery, the scientists of the last century have turned their attention to the people of ancient Egypt who lived on the fertile floodplain – the workers, artisans, and merchants. Excavations at Deir el-Medina, Elephantine, Kahun, or the Lost City of the Pyramid Builders have helped recover thousands of ancient letters (ostraca) which detail the everyday life of ordinary Egyptians – their personal diaries, divorces, bartering, and medical treatments.

Archaeologists have also begun exploring harbors and shipyards along Egypt’s Red Sea coast at Wadi al-Jarf and Ayn Soukhna, uncovering the earliest known ancient Egyptian artificial harbors. The excavated ship timbers, copper tools, storage jars, and even the diary of a certain Merer (a supervisor of one of the ancient Egyptian mining expeditions) have helped to detail how the resources of ancient Egypt (particularly its copper, turquoise, and limestone) were transported and utilized in the royal construction projects.

Conclusion

The science of archaeological excavation has helped to transform our knowledge of ancient Egypt from dry Classical mythology to an in-depth, multi-disciplinary understanding of the Pharaonic world. Countless hours of patient, meticulous work by Egyptologists have uncovered thousands of ancient artifacts which fill in much of the Pharaonic history we know today – from grand temple complexes to the delicate pollen grains found in the mud brick walls of common workers’ cottages. As long as new scientific research and excavations continue, the story of ancient Egypt will never become stagnant – it will always reveal new exciting discoveries and fascinating insights into the lives of the ancient Egyptians.