Ancient Egyptian Tombs as Historical Sources

When studying the history of ancient Egypt, modern-day historians utilize a wide range of sources, from stone constructions to papyrus scrolls and military stelae. However, there is one category of sources that seems particularly numerous, well-preserved, and diverse – the tombs of ancient Egypt. From the simplest pit graves of Predynastic times to the rock-cut chambers of the Valley of the Kings and the large mastabas of Giza and Saqqara – all of them were designed to be everlasting shelters of the dead.

Although they were built as sacred places to guarantee the smooth passing and survival in the afterlife, they also serve as valuable sources of information about the state, economy, and people’s everyday lives and beliefs in ancient Egypt. Through their architecture, hieroglyphs on the walls, biographical inscriptions, and grave goods, tombs can provide an insight into the social, political, technological, and artistic aspects of the society of Ancient Egypt.

1. Reading the History of Ancient Egypt in the Architecture of Tombs

The grandeur of the ancient Egyptian tombs and their location can often tell much about the state and its economy at a given historical moment.

A.

Royal Tombs and the Political Situation

During the times of a strong centralized state ruled by a pharaoh, the royal tombs serve as the ultimate demonstration of the king’s power and wealth. The royal pyramids built during the Old Kingdom dynasty required a massive amount of resources to be constructed and maintained. Their colossal size and complexity could only be achieved through the organization and labor provided by the state. This fact, in turn, reflects the wealth and prosperity of the nation, as well as the strength of the central government.

The periods of political instability and decentralization, on the other hand, see the appearance of smaller and less extravagant royal tombs. During the Intermediate Periods, the power and wealth of the kingdom were distributed between numerous regional governors – the nomarchs. They, in their turn, built large rock-cut tombs for themselves in their home towns (Beni Hasan, Asyut, Qau el-Kebir).

B.

The Evolution of Tomb Architectures as a Reflection of Political, Religious, and Technical Change

Across history, various tomb architectures were used to reflect the different political, religious, and technical needs of the time:

Mastabas were the simplest and earliest structures, made of mudbrick and stone, dating back to the Early Dynastic Period and the Old Kingdom.

Pyramids were large stone buildings constructed during the Old and Middle Kingdoms as the royal tombs.

Rock-cut tombs were the favored architecture of the New Kingdom rulers and the royal family.

The latter, in particular, became the dominant building tradition of the period due to both the rising security concerns and the natural environment of Thebes. The increasing number of tomb robberies affected even the kings’ burials, which resulted in the need for more concealment and security.

2. Reading Ancient History in the Tomb Inscriptions

A.

Autobiographies in the Tombs of Elite Non-Royal Individuals

One of the most valuable sources provided by the tombs of ancient Egypt is the autobiographical inscriptions on the doorjambs, stelae, and walls inside the burial chambers. They usually recount the deeds and achievements of the deceased, the service to the king, and the awards bestowed upon the deceased by the pharaoh or other authorities.

This information often serves as the primary or the sole source for the events described in them. Unlike the formal temple texts and inscriptions, the tomb autobiographies can describe in detail the military successes, trade, and even the court intrigues of the time:

The biography of Weni the Elder found in the Old Kingdom tomb belonged to one of the most successful generals of the time, who served under three different pharaohs (Teti, Pepi I, and Merenre I). Weni recounts his contributions to the army reorganization, leading five major expeditions to the Levant, and involvement in the affairs of the royal harem and the secret plot against Pepi I.

The biography of Harkhuf was found in his rock-cut tomb at Aswan. It recounts the four trading expeditions to the south during the reign of the child king Pepi II. He vividly describes receiving a letter from the king, expressing his delight with the dancing dwarf brought from Nubia as a present.

The biography of Ahmose, son of Ebana, found in the El-Kab necropolis, describes the events of the early years of the New Kingdom. Ahmose was the first king of the Eighteenth Dynasty and the founder of the Empire; his biography narrates about the campaign of King Ahmose against the foreign Hyksos kingdom at Avaris.

B.

The Organization of the State and Social Hierarchies

The tomb inscriptions and autobiographies can reveal much about the organization of the state and social hierarchies as well. They often describe the promotion and appointment to higher posts within the state apparatus, as well as the rewards in the form of “gold of honor.” Additionally, they represent the basic fiscal policy of the state and the responsibilities of the governors and tax collectors.

3. Reading Ancient History in Tomb Paintings and Reliefs

While the royal tombs contained few images of the everyday life, the non-royal ones did have them in abundance, depicting a wide range of topics. The scenes painted or carved on the walls of the mastaba or rock-cut tombs were meant to guarantee the smooth transition of the deceased into the next life and depict the world that the dead person would be familiar with (their home or village). These scenes often served as a way for the deceased to enjoy their favorite things from the earthly life, namely music and food. As such, they are incredibly informative for the modern historians and Egyptologists, as they often depict various tools used in different crafts.

A.

Art, Agriculture, and Technology

The images of agricultural labor, especially those associated with the Nile’s annual inundation, are one of the most common scenes found in the tombs of the Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms. They depict the entire cycle of production, from plowing and sowing to reaping and winnowing, as well as the storage of grain in the state granaries. Such images are incredibly valuable for the study of the economy and agriculture of ancient Egypt.

The images of artisans working with metal, gold, glass, stone, leather, and bricks are another common find in many tombs of the New Kingdom (namely the 18th and 19th dynasties). They illustrate the different methods of craftsmanship, revealing such details as the shape of the tools used.

The images of shipbuilding and maritime trade also contain much information about the techniques and strategies of the Egyptian shipping and trade.

B.

Social Classes and Daily Life

The scenes depicting the labor of slaves, farmers, fishermen, and various craftsmen are another source of information. The people featured in the images are usually portrayed in a smaller scale than the estate owner, who is seen in a larger scale and is depicted in a relaxed pose, inspecting the laborers or conversing with his wife. Additionally, the laborers are portrayed in a dynamic, almost dancing poses. All of these images give much information about the lives of ordinary people, their appearance, behavior, and attitudes towards their work.

4. Grave Goods, Bioarchaeology, and Material Culture

The finds from excavated tombs serve as the most tangible and direct source of information about the daily life and the economy of ancient Egypt.

A.

Trade, Diplomatic Relations, and Economy

The finds of foreign pottery, especially the Aegean one, ivory carvings, ebony furniture, cedarwood, and lapis lazuli, point to Egypt’s foreign economic relationships and trade partners. Certain goods, such as incense, could only be acquired through the state-controlled trade, which speaks of the high value and the cost of these items.

B.

Health, Nutrition, and Diseases

The examination of the bodies of the deceased (when available) can provide the information about the nutrition, lifestyle, and common illnesses and diseases of the ancient Egyptians. The bioarchaeology, or the examination of the bones and mummies, can reveal the traces of various illnesses (tuberculosis, schistosomiasis, and others). Moreover, the state of the skeleton can often point to the causes of death, childhood malnutrition, and diseases related to the poor oral hygiene and the inhalation of the sand with dust.

Conclusion

Ancient Egyptian tombs were built to withstand the test of time, to preserve the memory of the deceased and help them in their journey through the afterlife. However, they also served to help the future generations, many centuries later, uncover the details of the everyday life of the ancient Egyptians. Through the architecture, paintings, hieroglyphs, and goods owned by the deceased, modern historians can study the political, economic, and social history of Ancient Egypt, as well as the religion and cultural life of the people of Egypt of the past. With new discoveries and research, the study of Ancient Egypt continues with the same pace to this day.