Ancient Egyptian Papyrus: A Window Into Everyday Life

Among Egypt’s priceless literary treasures, few compare to the Ebers papyrus in terms of its value in understanding the science, observation, and spiritual beliefs of the ancient world. Dating back to approximately 1550 BCE, with some of its content tracing back to the Old Kingdom, this medical treatise is one of the oldest and most comprehensive documents of its kind.

Over twenty meters long and containing one hundred and eight columns of hieratic script, this scroll is a crucial piece of information about the medical practices of the time.

1. Discovery, description, and acquisition

The Ebers papyrus plays an important role in the study of the medical history of Ancient Egypt. Its story is inextricably linked to the European obsession with Egypt, one of the nineteenth century’s cultural preoccupations.

A. Discovery in the necropolis of Thebes

The manuscript was discovered in the winter of 1862, somewhere in the necropolis of Thebes, modern-day Luxor. It is likely that the scroll was found in a dry desert tomb, where it has been undisturbed for several millennia. Its physical condition is remarkable due to the dryness of the climate in Upper Egypt.

B. Purchase by Georg Ebers

In 1872, the papyrus was bought in Luxor by the German Egyptologist and novelist Georg Ebers. Recognizing its value, he took it to Germany and donated it to the University of Leipzig, where it is currently kept. In 1875, Ebers published a facsimile of the scroll with a hieroglyphic vocabulary, thereby contributing to the dissemination of the research on the manuscript and securing his legacy.

2. Theoretical background: anatomy and physiology

To understand the empirical data presented in the scroll, it is important to understand what the ancient physiologists knew and did not know about the human body.

A. The beating heart

The heart (ib) was the most important organ in the human body, as far as ancient Egyptians were concerned. Not only was it considered the source of life, but it was also the seat of the intellect and the emotions. The scroll describes the basic principles of cardiovascular physiology – the heart’s ability to pump blood and make it circulate through the body. A skilled physician could determine the state of the heart and its problems by feeling the pulse on the patient’s hands, head, and legs.

B. The vessel system (metu)

The basic understanding of the physiological functions of the human body and the reasons for the occurrence of diseases was built on the concept of the vessels (metu). Vessels were thought to transport not only blood but also air, water, mucus, semen, urine, and psychic substances. The balance of these liquids was essential to a human’s wellbeing; it had to be ensured that the vessels were neither constricted nor inflamed and that they carried the substances smoothly. The obstruction of the vessels, for whatever reason, led to a malfunction of different body parts or the whole body, depending on the severity of the disturbance.

3. The Ebers Papyrus and drugs

The Ebers papyrus is famous for containing a considerable list of diverse substances that can be used to treat almost any disease.

A. Natural drugs: herbs, seeds, flowers

The scroll lists several hundreds of drugs derived from nature. The variety of environments Egypt was home to, the wealth of its flora and the influence of foreign trades made it possible for the Egyptians to use a great variety of remedies in their daily practice. Among these were garlic and onions (for good digestion), castor oil (for catharsis), honey (as an antibacterial and healing agent), coriander, cumin, juniper (to relieve gas and pains), opium and willow bark (as pain killers).

B. Other minerals and products of animal origin

In addition to herbal medicine, the scroll contains descriptions of drugs using minerals as an ingredient. Copper salts and ochre, for example, were used for their astringent and antiseptic properties. Animal products such as milk, fat, dung, and bile were used frequently. Moreover, the foul-smelling concoctions were prepared to evil spirits or harmful toxins from the body.

4. Different areas of medicine covered in the scroll

The structure of the scroll allows one to see how the medical professionals of ancient Egypt approached their practice.

A. Internal diseases

A significant part of the scroll is taken by references to diseases and the corresponding treatments. The doctors treated worms using various herbal purge mixtures. They diagnosed these infections by observing the patient’s condition and asking him or her about the accompanying symptoms.

B. Eye, skin diseases, and contraception

A number of the ailments described in the scroll are related to the eyes. Eye infections were particularly prevalent due to the climate of Egypt and the associated frequent dust storms. Night blindness, corneal opacity, and trachoma were among the most common eye diseases. The physicians treated eye ailments with copper salves (kohl) and drops. There are also references to skin ulcers, burns, rashes, and baldness.

C. Women’s diseases and pregnancy

A separate section of the scroll is dedicated to women’s diseases. The physicians treated womb displacement, menstrual cycle irregularities, and diagnosed pregnancy using various tests. They also prescribed specific drugs to help with breastfeeding.

5. Two sides of medicine: empirical and visionary

Modern researchers may find it interesting that the scroll draws a fine line between the empirical and the visionary. The Egyptians did not separate the two, however, since they viewed spiritual life as an integral component of the physical world.

A. Clinical examination

The Ebers papyrus is a document that describes a set of well-defined clinical procedures. The practitioner examining the patient had to be methodical and systematic in order to adequately characterize the patient’s condition and choose the therapy. After inspecting the patient, measuring the pulse, and looking at the tongue, the physician had to decide on the diagnosis: “An ailment I will treat,” “An ailment I will contend with,” or “An ailment not to be treated.”

B. Incantations

In addition to drugs and treatment, the scroll contains various magical formulas meant to be chanted over the patient. It is important to note that diseases were not only the results of physical irregularities but also of supernatural causes. The practitioner invoked the protective powers of gods and goddesses such as Thoth (the deity of wisdom), Isis (mother goddess), Sekhmet (goddess of medicine and pestilence), etc.

Conclusion

The Ebers papyrus is a lasting legacy of human inquisitiveness, medical expertise, and a thirst for alleviating suffering. Even prior to the development of modern pathology, clinical examinations, and pharmacology, the ancient Egyptian physicians made outstanding contributions to the health and wellbeing of their people.

By recording their knowledge on papyrus, the doctors saved it for posterity. This document, created over a century ago, still fascinates people with its accuracy, comprehensiveness, and beauty.