Ancient Burial Customs and Funerary Art in Graeco-Roman Egypt

Despite Egypt becoming part of the Hellenistic and Roman world following Alexander the Great’s conquest in 332BCE, the native population still placed huge importance on death, rebirth and the afterlife. The Graeco-Roman period inspired an incredible time of cross cultural exchange, blending Pharaonic funerary beliefs with Mediterranean styles, classical philosophy and new societal structures. Ancient Egyptians, Greek settlers and Roman officials used new hybridised practices, and amazing new artistic styles in their cemeteries, catacombs, family tombs and necropolises to express their hopes of immortality. Investigating mummification, architecture, styles in funerary art and famous monuments from Upper, Middle and Lower Egypt will identify how burial practices evolved.

1. Mummification

For thousands of years mummification was seen as the key to being immortalised in order to move onto the afterlife as Osiris. Even in the Ptolemaic and Roman periods this remained an important belief.

A. Techniques

Despite many embalmers continuing to follow traditional techniques such as the removal of organs and drying the body with natron, there were many changes to what they used in the Roman period. Mummies became much darker and stiffer due to the increase in the use of hot bitumen, resins and perfumed oils. They were also expertly wrapped using complex and intricate patterns of linen bandages.

B. Beliefs

Religious beliefs had blended to create a mix of Egyptian and classical deities. The deceased were still associated with Osiris, the god of rebirth, however they were also connected with Serapis, the Graeco-Egyptian fusion god who was created under the early Ptolemies. Many classical statues of Anubis were created with Roman soldiers’ armour. Isis and Nephthys were decorated with beautiful Hellenistic styles of clothing and hairdos to protect the ba.

2. Styles in Art

The most visually impressive piece of funerary art from the Graeco-Roman period are the many different masks and panel paintings.

A. Cartonnage Masks

During the Ptolemaic period embalmers continued to place golden cartonnage masks over the head and torso. However by the early imperial period they evolved to become three dimensional. They were brightly coloured and created using detailed images with distinct facial features, complex Greek and Roman hair styles and classical jewellery.

B. Fayum Mummy Portraits

During the first century CE, a new style of art began to appear in the Fayum region and places such as Hawara, Antinoopolis and Akhmim. These portraits were painted onto thin wood panels or cloth using Tempera or Encaustic (pigments and hot bees wax). This replaced the traditional wooden masks found on coffins.

Realistic Artwork

They were painted by talented artists who specialised in classically realistic styles of artwork. They depicted the deceased in a realistic way with natural skin tones, large expressive eyes, soft shading and modern Roman clothing, hair and jewellery.

Purpose

These pieces were placed directly onto the face of the mummy and carefully wrapped into the linen. It meant the ba could recognise their body when they returned to the tomb.

3. Architecture

The architecture found in funerary monuments throughout Graeco-Roman Egypt varied depending on social status, local customs and personal preference. Some were large underground catacombs others were large temples.

A. Grand Temples

During the middle and upper regions of Egypt, wealthy families created free standing temples made using limestone. An example of one of these is the Tomb of Petosiris located at Tuna El Gebel. This tomb was built during the late 4 th Century BCE and has a grand entrance with Greek style columns. Inside there is an Egyptian temple which displays scenes of farming and craftsmanship. These scenes have been created using Hellenistic styles including realistic proportions, clothing and emotion.

B. Catacombs of Kom el Shoqafa

As there was limited space in Alexandria, it was an ideal place to bury the dead. They were buried in large multi story underground Catacombs. The Catacombs of Kom el Shoqafa were created in the second century CE and are the ultimate example of cross cultural styles.

This tomb was carved deep into the limestone. There is a rotunda, dining area (Triclinum) and many rooms containing hundreds of niches (Loculi).

The tomb contains many images of Osiris’ mummification on a lion shaped bed. However, the images follow classic Roman styles. The attendants wear Roman soldier clothing.

C. Animal Catacombs

During this time the mummification of animals reached its peak. At places such as Tuna El Gebel (Necropolis of Hermopolis Magna), millions of sacred ibises and baboons (associated with the god Thoth) were mummified and placed inside pottery jars. These were then stored in large underground galleries which spanned for many miles.

4. Rituals and Grave Goods

Many complex rituals were performed during burial in Graeco-Roman Egypt to help comfort the living and the deceased.

A. Dining

Many rituals were performed to honour the deceased. Family would visit the tomb regularly, especially on holy days. They would attend a special meal (Refrigeria). In places such as Alexandria and Kom el Shoqafa there were special dining areas with stone couches (Triclinia). Family would lounge on them, eat their food and pour offerings of wine, oil and water onto the stone channels which lead straight into the burial chamber below.

B. Grave Goods

Grave goods were placed into the burial chamber. Everyday items including make up jars, glass perfume bottles (Unguentaria), Terra Cotta statues of protective gods and personal jewellery. Many inscriptions were also found. Although many hieroglyphics and Demotic documents were placed inside the coffin containing spells from the book of the dead, many Greek elegiac poems were placed onto the tomb walls and gravestones. For example the tomb of Isadora located in Tuna El Gebel contains poignant Greek poems about tragic deaths.

Conclusion

The burials and art found in Graeco-Roman Egypt gives us a great insight into this vibrant and cross-cultural society. They combined the old Pharaonic beliefs surrounding mummification with Hellenistic realism, Roman art and classical architecture to create unique masterpieces such as the Fayum portraits and Catacombs of Alexandria. These are unique in human history as they have been preserved under the sand and carved tombs. They are a timeless reminder of humanity’s desire to conquer death through art.