Alexandria Under Roman Rule: How the City Changed Through the Centuries

Few individuals have influenced the world, inspired great literature, and changed the geographical make-up of the Mediterranean region as much as Cleopatra VII Philopator. The last active Pharaoh of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt ruled Egypt from 51BC to her death in 30BC. Cleopatra was an extremely intelligent linguist, tactician, economist and naval leader. During the time when Rome was becoming increasingly dominant in the world, she used alliances, economics and divinity to protect her country's independence. Her royal background, her alliances with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony, her cultural policies and her eventual loss will reveal how remarkable she was as a leader during the history of Egypt and the Mediterranean.

1. Royal Background, Childhood and Ascension to the Throne

Cleopatra was born in 69BC in Alexandria, the capital city of the Ptolemaic Kingdom. She was part of the Ptolemaic Dynasty, a Macedonian Greek royal family founded by Ptolemy I Soter, one of Alexander the Great's most trusted generals, after he conquered Egypt in 332BC.

A. Educational and Political Background

During her early years, Cleopatra lived in the royal quarter (Brucheion) in Alexandria. This meant she was exposed to high level of intellectual knowledge, political and royal intrigue. Unlike many of her predecessors in the Ptolemaic Dynasty, Cleopatra was very talented with languages. According to Plutarch, she could speak at least 9 languages flawlessly. These include Greek, Aramaic, Ethiopian, Hebrew, Parthian, Latin and most importantly Egyptian. This made her the first female in almost 300 years to learn and speak her native language.

B. Ascension to the Throne

After her father King Ptolemy XII Auletes passed away in 51BC, Cleopatra became Queen of Egypt aged just 18. She ruled alongside her younger brother Ptolemy XIII as it was tradition in the Ptolemaic Dynasty. However, soon after, the political tensions in the court increased. Cleopatra was removed from her throne and sent out into the desert in Syria by Ptolemy's powerful advisors. This included the eunuch Pothinus and general Achillas. They staged a coup at palace and Cleopatra fled.

2. Julius Caesar and the Alexandrian War

When Julius Caesar, the Roman dictator, arrived in Alexandria in 48BC, this changed Cleopatra's life forever. He had been chasing his political rival Pompey the Great to Egypt after the Battle of Pharsalus.

A. Cleopatra's Entry into Rome's Palace

Cleopatra knew that she needed Caesar's military strength to get her throne back. She famously snuck into Caesar's private chambers in Alexandria. It is said that Cleopatra hid in a linen mattress or carpet and was smuggled into the palace by her servants. Caesar was so impressed with her cleverness, charm and intellect that he agreed to help her.

B. Cleopatra's Victory

This led to the Alexandrian War (48-47BC), a fierce battle between Ptolemy XIII's loyal soldiers and Caesar's small force of Roman soldiers. After months of fighting in the city, Caesar won against Ptolemy XIII. Ptolemy drowned in the Nile trying to escape. This resulted in Cleopatra being reinstated as Queen of Egypt and ruling solely (although formally with another of her younger brothers Ptolemy XIV). In 47BC, she gave birth to a son named Ptolemy Caesar, nicknamed Caesarion (Little Caesar). Cleopatra declared him her heir.

3. Political Power, Economic Boost and Mark Antony

After Julius Caesar had been assassinated in Rome in 44BC, Cleopatra returned to Alexandria.

A. Economic Control and Religion

Cleopatra was an extremely energetic and capable leader. She controlled Egypt's gold, kept the currency stable and ensured there was enough grain during times of drought and low levels of flooding in the Nile River. To increase her power over the Egyptian people she portrayed herself as the living goddess Isis (Nea Isis). She would often take part in religious practices at Dendera, Memphis and Edfu and declared Caesarion as the godly child Horus.

B. Cleopatra meets Mark Antony

In 41BC, Cleopatra was called to Tarsus in Asia Minor by Mark Antony, one of the Roman triumvirs. This was due to the Roman Republic falling back into civil war after Julius Caesar had died. When she arrived she was sailing in a beautiful boat with a golden bow, purple sails and silver oars. She was wearing a costume as the goddess Aphrodite. Cleopatra realised that Antony had control over the east of Rome, so formed a strong alliance with him.

Antony offered Egypt military protection whilst Cleopatra provided Antony with the money, grain and navy he needed to fund his battles against Parthia and his political rival Octavian (future Emperor Augustus). Cleopatra and Antony had three children together; twins Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene II and Ptolemy Philadelphus.

4. Battle of Actium and the End of the Ptolemaic Dynasty

Cleopatra and Antony's alliance caused great panic in Rome. Octavian launched a brilliant propaganda campaign saying that Cleopatra was a foreign witch.

A. Battle of Actium

In 31BC Octavian's jealousy over Antony and Cleopatra reached its peak. They had a huge battle at Actium, off the coast of Greece. This was disastrous for the Eastern alliance. Octavian had some brilliant naval leaders and Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa surrounded Antony and Cleopatra's heavier fleet. As they were losing the battle Cleopatra broke through their blockade with her Egyptian navy and fled back to Alexandria, followed closely by Antony.

B. Cleopatra's Death

By 30BC Octavian had surrounded Egypt. As she knew she had lost the battle, Mark Antony decided not to be shown around Rome as a prisoner in Octavian's victory parade. He stabbed himself with his sword after being told Cleopatra had died.

Cleopatra died shortly after in her tomb. Although many believe she died from an asp bite (a poisonous snake), ancient historians have noted she may have also swallowed poison. Octavian then ordered the death of her eldest son Caesarion. This ended the 300 year old Ptolemaic Dynasty and Egypt became a private province of the Roman Empire.

Conclusion

Cleopatra VII was an eternal figure of power, intelligence and political strategy. She was an expert in classical languages, had excellent economic skills, portrayed herself as the goddess Isis and formed strong alliances with the two most powerful Roman leaders. She fought extremely hard to keep Ptolemaic Egypt independent. Although her kingdom fell to the rising power of Rome, Cleopatra has left behind a lasting legacy as the last Pharaoh.